Coal is a type of solid-state combustible organic rock, which is transformed from plant remains by complex biochemistry, physical chemistry and geochemistry effects also known as the coal-forming process. Through deposition, coal eventually forms a seam within coal measure strata.

Since foundation of potential theory in geophysics is based on scalar and vector potentials, a brief introductory note on vector analysis is given. Besides preliminaries of vector algebra, gradient divergence and curl are defined. Gauss’s divergence theorem to convert a volume integral to a surface integral and Stoke’s theorem to convert a surface integral to a line integral are given. A few well known relations in vector analysis are given as ready references.

Vertebrates (Chordata: Vertebrata) are animals closely related to other animals with a notochord, namely, the lancelets (Cephalochordata) and ascidians (Urochordata). Although traditionally considered as subphyla of the phylum Chordata, a recent review by Irie et al. (2018) proposes the recognition of Vertebrata as a separate phylum, because of new evidence from comparative genomic, geneexpression, and morphological studies.

Gravity interpretation involves inversion of data into models, but it is more. Gravity interpretation is used in a “holistic” sense going beyond “inversion”. Inversion is like optimization within certain a priori assumptions, i.e., all anticipated models lie in a limited domain of the a priori errors. No source should exist outside the anticipated model volume, but that is never literally true. Interpretation goes beyond by taking “outside” possibilities into account in the widest sense. Any neglected possibility carries the danger of seriously affecting the interpretation <...>

Access to clean water is a human right and a basic requirement for economic development. The safest kind of water supply is the use of groundwater. Since groundwater normally has a natural protection against pollution by the covering layers, only minor water treatment is required.
Detailed knowledge on the extent, hydraulic properties, and vulnerability of groundwater reservoirs is necessary to enable a sustainable use of the resources.

This book is intended for graduate students of the Earth Sciences who require a comprehensive examination of the origins of igneous rocks as recorded by the isotope compositions of the strontium, neodymium, lead, and oxygen they contain. Students who have not had a formal course in the systematics of radiogenic isotopes can acquire a basic understanding of this subject by a careful study of Chap. 1. Additional information is readily available in a textbook by Faure (1986). The primary purpose of this book is to demonstrate how the isotope composition of Sr, Nd, Pb, and 0 in igneous rocks has been used to shed light on the origin of igneous rocks and hence on the activity of the mantle and on its interactions with the continental and oceanic crust.

Progress in geoengineering, hydrology and environmental sciences as a whole closely depends on the development of new methods of investigation, which are based on the latest achievements in adjacent branches of science such as physics, chemistry, electronics, geophysics and so on. This book provides the fundamentals and field applications of nuclear techniques in engineering geology, hydrogeology, civil engineering, agriculture and environmental study. The book is intended for scientists and researchers, teachers, students and postgraduates engaged in field studies for solving scientific and practical problems in applied geology and hydrology for civil, road, power, airfield, harbour engineering, drainage and irrigation.

Subduction is a major process that plays a first-order role in the dynamics of the Earth. The sinking of cold lithosphere into the mantle is thought by many authors to be the most important source of energy for plates driving forces. It also deeply modifies the thermal and chemical structure of the mantle, producing arc volcanism, and is responsible for the release of most of the seismic energy on Earth.

Seismic interpretation is an art or a skill that is acquired with experience, which I happened to attain during my long stint with Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), India. On my superannuation from ONGC after 37 years of service, my passion for seismic interpretation encouraged me to take up consulting projects and teaching assignments at Indian Universities, which I have enjoyed very much till the present. A few years ago, my good friend and erstwhile colleague at ONGC, Satinder Chopra of Arcis Seismic Solutions, TGS, Calgary, Canada, suggested that I should condense my long-standing experience in seismic interpretation in the form of a book. His persistent persuasion eventually compelled me to take up this task. From the beginning, Satinder has been extremely supportive and obliging in developing the project, both in mind and matter. His genial and meticulous review of the manuscript has fi nally brought the book to its present form. I gratefully and profoundly thank Satinder for these acts. <...>

To understand hydrochemistry and to analyze natural as well as man-made impacts on aquatic systems, hydrogeochemical models have been used since the 1960’s and more frequently in recent times.
Numerical groundwater flow, transport, and geochemical models are important tools besides classical deterministic and analytical approaches. Solving complex linear or non-linear systems of equations, commonly with hundreds of unknown parameters, is a routine task for a PC.