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Mineral physics involves the application of physics and chemistry techniques in order to understand and predict the fundamental behavior of Earth materials (e.g., Kieffer and Navrotsky, 1985), and hence provide solutions to large-scale problems in Earth and planetary sciences. Mineral physics, therefore, is relevant to all aspects of solid Earth sciences, from surface processes and environmental geochemistry to the deep Earth and the nature of the core. In this volume, however, we focus only on the geophysical applications of mineral physics (see also Ahrens (1995), Hemley (1998), and Poirier (2000)). These applications, however, are not just be constrained to understanding structure the Earth (see Volume 1) and its evolution (see Volume 9), but also will play a vital role in our understanding of the dynamics and evolution of other planets in our solar system (see Volume 10 and Oganov et al. (2005)). As a discipline, mineral physics as such has only been recognized for some 30 years or so, but in fact it can trace its origins back to the very foundations of solid Earth geophysics itself. Thus, for example, the work of Oldham (1906) and Gutenberg (1913), that defined the seismological characteristics of the core, led to the inference on the basis of materials physics that the outer core is liquid because of its inability to support the promulgation of shear waves. A landmark paper in the history of the application of mineral physics to the understanding of the solid Earth is the Density of the Earth by Williamson and Adams (1923). Here the elastic constants of various rock types were used to interpret the density profile as a function of depth within the Earth that had been inferred from seismic and gravitational data. Their work was marked by taking into account the gravitationally induced compression of material at depth within the Earth, which is described by the Williamson–Adams relation that explicitly links geophysical observables (g(r), the acceleration due to gravity as a function of radius, r, and the longitudinal and shear seismic wave velocities Vp and Vs).
Humanity has always been fascinated with the wandering stars in the sky, the planets. Ancient astrologists have observed and used the paths of the planets in the sky to time the seasons and to predict the future. Observations of the planets helped J. Kepler to formulate his laws of planetary motion and revolutionize the perception of the world. With the advent of the space age, the planets have been transferred from bright spots in the sky to worlds of their own right that can be explored, in part by using the in situ and remote-sensing tools of the geosciences. The terrestrial planets are of particular interest to the geoscientist because comparison with our own planet allows a better understanding of our home, the Earth. Venus offers an example of a runaway greenhouse that has resulted in what we would call a hellish place. With temperatures of around 450C and a corrosive atmosphere that is also optically nontransparent, Venus poses enormous difficulties to spacecraft exploration. Mars is a much friendlier planet to explore but a planet where greenhouse effects and atmospheric loss processes have resulted in a cold and dusty desert. But aside from considerations of the usefulness of space exploration in terms of understanding Earth, the interested mind can visit astounding and puzzling places. There is the dynamic atmosphere of Jupiter with a giant thunderstorm that has been raging for centuries. There is Saturn with its majestic rings and there are Uranus and Neptune wit complicated magnetic fields. These giant planets have moons that are similarly astounding. There is the
volcanic satellite of Jupiter, Io that surpasses the Earth, and any other terrestrial planet in volcanic activity and surface heat flow. This activity is powered by tides that twist the satellite such that its interior partially melts. A much smaller moon of Saturn, Enceladus, also has geysers that could be powered by tidal heating. Its volcanic activity releases water vapor not lava. There is another moon of Saturn, Titan, that hides its surface underneath a layer of photochemical smog in a thick nitrogen atmosphere and there are moons of similar sizes that lack any comparable atmosphere. Miranda, satellite of Uranus, appears as if it has been ripped apart and reassembled. Triton, a satellite of Neptune, has geysers of nitrogen powered by solar irradiation. Magnetic field data suggest that icy moons orbiting the giant planets may have oceans underneath thick ice covers.These oceans can, at least in principle, harbor or have harbored life. Moreover, there are asteroids with moons and comets that may still hold the clues to how the solar system and life on Earth formed. This volume of the Treatise on Geophysics discusses fundamental aspects of the science of the planets. It is focused on geophysical properties of the Earth-like planets and moons, those bodies that consist largely of rock, iron, and water, and the processes occurring in their interiors and on their surfaces. But it goes further by discussing the giant planets and their satellites as well. The better part of the volume is dedicated to the interior structure and evolution of the terrestrial planets and to their physical properties such as gravity and magnetic fields, rotation and surface–atmosphere interactions. What is the planetological context of life?
Geophysics is the physics of the Earth, the science that studies the Earth by measuring the physical consequences of its presence and activity. It is a science of extraordinary breadth, requiring 10 volumes of this treatise for its description. Only a treatise can present a science with the breadth of geophysics if, in addition to completeness of the subject matter, it is intended to discuss the material in great depth. Thus, while there are many books on geophysics dealing with its many subdivisions, a single book cannot give more than an introductory flavor of each topic. At the other extreme, a single book can cover one aspect of geophysics in great detail, as is done in each of the volumes of this treatise, but the treatise has the unique advantage of having been designed as an integrated series, an important feature of an interdisciplinary science such as geophysics. From the outset, the treatise was planned to cover each area of geophysics from the basics to the cutting edge so that the beginning student could learn the subject and the advanced researcher could have an up-to-date and thorough exposition of the state of the field. The planning of the contents of each volume was carried out with the active participation of the editors of all the volumes to insure that each subject area of the treatise benefited from the multitude of connections to other areas. Geophysics includes the study of the Earth’s fluid envelope and its near-space environment. However, in this treatise, the subject has been narrowed to the solid Earth. The Treatise on Geophysics discusses the atmosphere, ocean, and plasmasphere of the Earth only in connection with how these parts of the Earth affect the solid planet. While the realm of geophysics has here been narrowed to the solid Earth, it is broadened to include other planets of our solar system and the planets of other stars. Accordingly, the treatise includes a volume on the planets, although that volume deals mostly with the terrestrial planets of our own solar system. The gas and ice giant planets of the outer solar system and similar extra-solar planets are discussed in only one chapter of the treatise. Even the Treatise on Geophysics must be circumscribed to some extent. One could envision a future treatise on Planetary and Space Physics or a treatise on Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics. Geophysics is fundamentally an interdisciplinary endeavor, built on the foundations of physics, mathematics, geology, astronomy, and other disciplines. Its roots therefore go far back in history, but the science has blossomed only in the last century with the explosive increase in our ability to measure the properties of the Earth and the processes going on inside the Earth and on and above its surface. The technological advances of the last century in laboratory and field instrumentation, computing, and satellite-based remote sensing are largely responsible for the explosive growth of geophysics. In addition to the enhanced ability to make crucial measurements and collect and analyze enormous amounts of data, progress in geophysics was facilitated by the acceptance of the paradigm of plate tectonics and mantle convection in the 1960s. This new view of how the Earth works enabled an understanding of earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building, indeed all of geology, at a fundamental level. The exploration of the planets and moons of our solar system, beginning with the Apollo missions to the Moon, has invigorated geophysics and further extended its purview beyond the Earth. Today geophysics is a vital and thriving enterprise involving many thousands of scientists throughout the world. The interdisciplinarity and global nature of geophysics identifies it as one of the great unifying endeavors of humanity.
Applications of seismology to the study of the Earth’s interior are only a little over 100 years old. Its tools in determining the properties of inaccessible Earth are the most powerful among all geophysical methods. The principal reasons are the availability of natural (earthquakes) or controlled (explosions and vibrators) sources of elastic waves and their relatively low attenuation with distance.
Geophysics is the physics of the Earth, the science that studies the Earth by measuring the physical consequences of its presence and activity. It is a science of extraordinary breadth, requiring 10 volumes of this treatise for its description. Only a treatise can present a science with the breadth of geophysics if, in addition to completeness of the subject matter, it is intended to discuss the material in great depth. Thus, while there are many books on geophysics dealing with its many subdivisions, a single book cannot give more than an introductory flavor of each topic.
Near-surface geophysics (NSG) was not specifically addressed in the first edition of the Treatise on Geophysics. The decision to include a new volume in the second edition of the Treatise on Geophysics on the near surface reflects the ever-growing contribution that geophysics is making to our understanding of the outermost shell of the Earth. This growth is evidenced by the formation of a new focus group in NSG within the American Geophysical Union, the largest Earth science organization worldwide, in 2006 (Figure 1). The near surface is perhaps a somewhat nebulous term that means different things to different people.
Treatise on Geophysics: Mineral Physics, Volume 2, provides a comprehensive review of the current state of understanding of mineral physics. Each chapter demonstrates the significant progress that has been made in the understanding of the physics and chemistry of minerals, and also highlights a number of issues which are still outstanding or that need further work to resolve current contradictions.
The aim of the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, as originally conceived and consistently pursued, is to present the most comprehensive and authoritative, yet compact statement of knowledge concerning invertebrate fossil groups that can be formulated by collaboration of competent specialists in seeking to organize what has been learned of this subject up to the mid-point of the present century.
The aim of the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, as originally conceived and consistendy pursued, is to present the most comprehensive and authoritative, yet compact statement of knowledge concerning invertebrate fossil groups that can be formulated by collaboration oLcompetent special- „ ists in seeking to organize what has been learned of this subject up to the mid-point of the present century.
The cephalopods described in this volume are divided into the orders Ellesmero-cerida, Endocerida, Intejocerida, Actino-cerida, Orthocerida, Ascocerida, Disco-sorida, Oncocerida, Tarphycerida, Bar-randeocerida, and Nautilida. Descriptions of them are followed by that of the Bactri-tida, the taxonomic status and affinities of which are unsettled. The named orders include all the cephalopods which from the middle of the 19th century until comparatively recently were assigned to a single taxon “Nautiloidea,” first recognized and named by de Blainville in 1825 and generally regarded as a suprafamilial category, being classified by different authors as suborder, order, superorder, or subclass. This taxon was long contrasted with the Am-monoidea (Treatise, Part L), and considered to be equal in rank with this assemblage. <...>
