Extractive metallurgy of copper / Металлургическое извлечение меди

Copper is most commonly present in the earth’s crust as coppereironesulfide and copper sulfide minerals, such as chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and chalcocite (Cu2S). The concentration of these minerals in an ore body is low. Typical copper ores contain from 0.5% Cu (open pit mines, Fig. 1.1) to 1 or 2% Cu (underground mines). Pure copper metal is mostly produced from these ores by concentration, smelting, and refining (Fig. 1.2). Copper also occurs to a lesser extent in oxidized minerals (carbonates, oxides, hydroxy-silicates, sulfates). Copper metal is usually produced from these minerals by leaching, solvent extraction, and electrowinning (Fig. 1.3). These processes are also used to treat chalcocite (Cu2S).
A third major source of copper is scrap copper and copper alloys. Production of copper from recycled used objects is 10 or 15% of mine production. In addition, there is considerable re-melting/re-refining of scrap generated during fabrication and manufacture. Total copper production in 2010 (mined and from end-of-use scrap) was ~20 million tonnes. <...>